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This chapter provides a summation of four subtheories developed over approximately five decades. Although my early work on Subtheory I (the Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness) and Subtheory II (the Enrichment Triad Model) gained more attention than I ever expected, I began to feel that there were still characteristics and programming opportunities that needed to be added to the overall search for factors that contribute to total talent development. This concern, coupled with my own belief that programs for our most able young people should: (1) promote a sense of social justice and the use of one's gifts to make positive contributions to society, and (2) provide experiences in the development of strategies for acquiring self-regulation skills, using time and resources wisely, taking action, and managing change. And, of course, I wanted to come up with ideas that interacted with rather than replaced Three-Ring and Triad. The result was several years of research and development that led to Subtheories III and IV that are discussed in this chapter. I refer to the traits discussed in Subtheories III and IV as co-cognitive factors because they interact with and enhance the cognitive traits that are ordinarily associated with the development of human abilities. A number of researchers have suggested that constructs of this type, including social, emotional, and interpersonal intelligence, are related to each other and are at least partially independent from traditional academic measures of human abilities. I invite readers to draw their own conclusions about whether or not these four interactive subtheories promote what I describe as a fully functioning self-actualized individual. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

In the early 1970s when I began work on the Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness, I embedded the rings in a houndstooth background that represented the interaction between personality and environment. In recent years, further research and theory development coupled with a growing concern in the field related to social and emotional development has led to a new dimension of my work on characteristics that calls attention to a series of six co-cognitive factors that are discussed in this chapter. A comprehensive review of the literature and a series of Delphi technique studies led to the development of an organizational plan for studying these six components and 13 subcomponents. Factor analysis identified these clusters of discrete but interrelated traits. I refer to these as co-cognitive factors because they interact with and enhance the cognitive traits that we ordinarily associate with the development of both high achievement and creative productive manifestations of giftedness. This new initiative was prompted by a longstanding concern about the role that gifted education should play in preparing persons with high potential for ethical and responsible leadership in all walks of life. Investments in this type of social capital benefit society as a whole because they help to create the values, norms, networks, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation geared toward the greater public good. Striking evidence indicates a marked decline in American social capital over the latter half of the century just ending. National surveys show declines over the last few decades in voter turnout and political participation, membership in service clubs, church-related groups, parent teacher associations, unions, and fraternal groups. These declines in civic and social participation have been paralleled by an increasing tendency for young people to focus on materialism, self-intelligence, narrow professional success, and individual economic gain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

This recently written chapter is designed to set the stage for a better understanding of the chapters that follow in this section of the book. As will be pointed out, epistemology, the study of knowledge creation and use, was a topic examined by ancient philosophers and is reflected in modern educational templates for learning such as Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. I was surprised that no articles in the gifted literature had addressed this topic. It wasn't until recent years that I realized different types of knowledge are the "grist for the mill of mind." Understanding different levels of knowledge helped me to better recognize the argument made in the following chapter about the importance of focusing special programs on creative and productive giftedness. This work also reflects my growing fascination with the importance that technology is now playing for learners of all ages and the easy accessibility to the wide world of knowledge that young people now have through the Internet. An examination of the three levels of knowledge discussed in this chapter and the importance of blending them together will strike some readers as "common sense," and this is exactly what I intended. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

The Enrichment Triad Model was developed in conjunction with the Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness discussed in Chapter 3 of this book. This model, which is essentially a learning theory, is primarily designed to serve as a practical guide for promoting what I referred to in Chapter 3 as creative productive giftedness. It was originally published as articles in a two-part series and subsequently a short book. Both of these models were greeted with a fair amount of skepticism in the gifted education community because they disagreed with prevailing trends about the conception of giftedness, a focus on advanced lesson-learning approaches to developing giftedness, and the belief that higher level thinking skills were the exclusive province of gifted students only. The Three-Ring and Triad models, however, "got legs," and as they grew in popularity over the years, I gained new insights about issues related to practical strategies for implementing the three types of enrichment around which the Triad Model is organized. This chapter is an updated version of the original work on Triad and a compilation of the original theory plus various conceptual and practical additions that have been added over the years. The chapter serves as an overview rather than as a practical guide for implementation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

This chapter is based on a research project that produced some "hard data" to support the assertion made earlier stating that the field has changed its mind about the conception of giftedness and the types of information that should be used in the identification process. Strong agreement was found among classroom teachers, gifted education teachers, administrators, and consultants (experts in the field and state directors) from urban, suburban, and rural districts. Overall, respondents disagreed with a totally test-score approach and supported approaches that used individual expression, ongoing assessment, and context-bound identification procedures. Furthermore, they strongly agreed with the importance of using multiple criteria for the identification of gifted and talented children. This study has important implications about the need for change in both policy and identification practice and its most valuable use to the field is that it should be brought to the attention of policy makers responsible for developing state and district guidelines. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

In an applied field such as education we have always maintained that a theory doesn't have much value (beyond generating research proposals) unless it can ultimately guide practice, and hopefully policy. We also maintain that there is no such thing as a "perfect" identification system and any system is always a series of compromises that must take into account state rules and regulations, political realities (e.g., parent pressures, under representation of low-income and minority groups), practical issues (e.g., time and costs of testing), and of course the conception(s) of giftedness and the programming models) that guide the services for which students are being identified. In this chapter, we first discuss a number of considerations that must be taken into account when designing an identification system for a school, district, or even a state. The step-by-step system that is described here is an attempt to address as many of these considerations as possible, but we must also state up front that the system presented in this chapter is based on the Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness. Further, it is designed for programs that focus mainly on creative productive giftedness as delineated in the Enrichment Triad Model. The system does, of course, provide a major pathway for the highest achieving students but it also "opens the door" for participation by students who show potential for high performance through one or more nontest criteria that may not be adequately assessed by cognitive ability or achievement tests. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

The original article on The Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness appeared in a 1978 edition of the Kappan. Although it was originally rejected by the journals in gifted education, it has now become the most widely cited article in the field. Over the years, I have updated the article three times to include new research and changes in identification and programming that have taken place in the field over the years. The original article and subsequent follow-ups have been cited approximately 3,000 times in national and international journals. The most important point in the chapter is that our field needs to make differentiated provisions for both high-achieving students and what I have described in this chapter as creative productive giftedness. These two types of giftedness are not mutually exclusive, but it is important to recognize that creative and productive people represent the kind of giftedness found in people who have changed the world in both large and small ways. The chapter presented here is the most recent update. I am proud of the influence all of the Three-Ring articles have had because they show that a field can change its mind regarding long held beliefs about the nature of giftedness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

This chapter discusses the promotion of optimal mind-sets among gifted children. Students need to hear the message that effort increases their ability. Discussing the developmental nature of giftedness and the maleability of the brain with students helps to promote this message. Equally important is the mind-set parents and teachers hold, as well as the ways they encourage students to excel. The key is to separate the recognition of the talent from the attribution for how the talent came to fruition. Challenging curriculum supports growth mind-sets. When work is not challenging, gifted students earn good grades without putting forth substantial effort. Researchers and practitioners have speculated on the possible negative effects of being able to earn high grades with limited effort, and a fixed mind-set may be one of them. A challenging curriculum helps students learn to recover from setbacks and understand the importance of effort. Having a mind-set that does not foster coping with setbacks inhibits the movement from ability to eminence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

The material in this chapter results from a comprehensive review of the scientific literature in psychology that draws from these five views of giftedness and talent development as well as research on expertise, high performance, creativity, motivation, and human development. The outcome of the Subotnik et al. analysis is a framework that includes the following central points: (a) giftedness is not static but maleable and needs to be developed; (b) it is more useful to consider giftedness as domain specific rather than global; (c) psychosocial skills play an outsize role in optimal development; and (d) the desired outcome of gifted education is to provide the skills, knowledge, and opportunities needed for talent to be developed to optimal levels of performance or creative productivity at each phase, which includes eminence for those individuals who wish to and are able to pursue that goal. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

The purpose of this chapter is not to catalog research on individual social or emotional traits associated with gifted individuals; such summaries will be found in subsequent chapters. Rather, it is to offer a survey of theoretical frameworks through which those traits can be more effectively understood and addressed. The following section highlights several theories of social or emotional development that have found use in recent years among gifted educators, as well as recent research drawing on those frameworks. It is not a comprehensive list, but it represents a cross-section of popular acceptance, recent development, and depth of application. The greater intent is to demonstrate how placing traits of giftedness in a theoretical context can help us formulate better service. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

Gifted education in Japan is unique in that there is neither formal definition of giftedness or identification of the gifted based on it, nor official gifted educational programs in school due to the climate of egalitarianism. However, education that virtually or de facto plays the role of gifted education, especially academic giftedness, has been implemented both in and outside of the school settings. These de facto gifted programs have created competition and hierarchies of schools based on student achievement. Recently the government changed its emphasis in educational policy from uniform curriculum to individualized education, while promoting the improvement of student achievement. The individualization of learning, which builds on the strengths of students and caters to their needs, is gradually spreading. This way of virtual gifted education is useful particularly in special needs education for students with disabilities. A challenge facing the educational system in providing appropriate education for precocious and advanced students is the development of plans that meet the diverse advanced learning needs of each student without calling it gifted education and selecting a small number of students for special gifted programs. In addition, in order to advance gifted education in Japan, giftedness in students with developmental disorders need to be more recognized. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

This chapter discuses the science and education of the individual. Gifted education has been the core of the Eastern Asian education tradition, albeit following an extremely limited definition of giftedness. When giftedness is limited to academic performance, as it is the most common definition in practice even in the West, it would not be an exaggeration to describe Asian meritocracy as a sophisticated system of gifted education. In fact the entire system has been built to serve those children gifted in memorization, compliance, and test taking. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

In this chapter, we present an account of how giftedness is viewed in India, the second most populous country in the world. Despite the innovative potential which could be harnessed from this vast populace, millions of students remain deprived of basic education, and are often restricted by matters of inequality. As a result, discussion will focus on issues of equity, as well as privileges and policies for the gifted and talented in India, which are often quite different in their nature and magnitude in comparison to other countries. This chapter will address the issue of how giftedness is perceived, identified, and nurtured in India through a socio-cultural and psychological lens. Discussion will then center on the status of programs and policies for the gifted and talented in India which will serve as indicators of a general roadmap of what India can and needs lo do for its gifted and talented population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

Studies of drawings by young art students, nonart students, and children who realized their potential for artistic giftedness in adulthood provide clear evidence regarding the effects of advancing knowledge on the development of artistic talent and creativity in children. Focusing on the nature of this artistic experience and developing expertise, this chapter argues that artistic creativity does emerge from measurable interactions between advancing knowledge and visual information processing. Furthermore, the relationships among advanced knowledge in the visual arts, the processing of visual information (i.e., problem finding and reasoning), and creative productivity depend on the task, the behavior monitored, the phase of developing talent, and the expertise that educational intervention can afford. Embracing Gruber's evolving systems approach, a description emerges of the interplay among the young artist's purposeful work, affect, and knowledge of traditional visual arts conventions. The discussion of the early development of artistic talent and creativity articulates the yields of both quantitative and qualitative studies. Studies of the artistic development of groups of children stand against current theories and practice in art education. Identifiable differences do emerge within the context of case studies showing the early roots of children's artistic talent and creativity. The case study of a young artist named Eric later in this chapter is used to exemplify these points. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

In this chapter, we discuss racial/ethnic identity and gender identity and their association with outstanding performance. We begin with a brief review of giftedness as a construct, and a review of statistics on the demographic membership of gifted and talented education (GATE) programs. Next, we discuss in turn racial identity and ethnic identity and the research that relates these constructs to outstanding achievement. Then, we repeat this discussion in the context of gender identity. Finally, we conclude with some thoughts about research in this area. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

The emphases on thinking, creating, and problem solving provide direction for educators who desire to prepare gifted students to lead a rapidly changing world. The skills learners need today go beyond the standard curriculum; their future and the well-being of our society depend on educational practices that foster these skills and abilities. Inquiry learning, including project- and problem-based learning, is a method for all students to acquire these outcomes; however, it is particularly well-suited to gifted students' inquiry-oriented learning style. Inquiry learning provides the opportunity for true differentiation for exceptional learners and holds the promise of uncovering latent giftedness through developing intellectual character. In this chapter, I will focus on inquiry learning as an effective strategy for optimizing and developing higher order thinking skills in gifted learners, differentiating curriculum in the inclusive classroom (with obvious parallel implications for the benefit of inquiry-based curriculum in cluster and exclusively gifted classroom environments), and the opportunity to reveal giftedness in unidentified learners. In a time of innovation, global connectedness, and technological possibility, educators have the opportunity to provide curriculum that fosters these skills and abilities for today's learners and nurtures the leaders of tomorrow. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

In this chapter, we choose to use the term advanced academics in place of gifted and talented for many reasons that will become clear later in this chapter. However, first we want to make a few points before we discuss this approach. We believe that the goals of gifted and talented education are the same as those of any advanced academics program: to assure that all students learn, are appropriately challenged, and have their academic needs met in school. Of course, not all references to "giftedness" deal with K-12 schools. This is the first major difference between the differentiation paradigm and the talent development paradigm, and is part of the reason why we have chosen to avoid the term gifted. The advanced academic model is concerned solely with the education of students in schools. It is not focused on adult learners, talent in other areas of the lifespan, or those individuals who are gifted or otherwise advanced in areas not addressed in schools (e.g., gifted welders or potters, unless those areas of study are part of the academic curriculum of a school, in which case these domains would fall under the advanced academic model). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

Talent development as a framework for understanding giftedness and advancing gifted education services has gained momentum fueled in part by recent publications, discussions, and dissatisfaction with the efficacy and sustainability of traditional approaches in contemporary schools. Important goals in a curriculum focused on talent development include developing an individual's capacity to recognize affordances in natural, social, and technological environments that may multiply individual abilities, and to skillfully and ethically engage with (and add value to) these extended cognitive resources. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

This chapter focuses on the use of the Woodcock-Johnson TV Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-IV-COG) and Woodcock- Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ-IV-ACH) in the assessment of students who may be gifted. To provide a context for this discussion, we first tackle the thorny issue of, "who are the gifted?" We then present the readers with the tripartite model of giftedness. Next, we discuss the various purposes of assessment of the gifted, basic principles, and fundamental beliefs underlying these assessments. Finally, we examine the unique strengths of the WJ IV COG and ACH for the assessment of the gifted. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)

What is the usual language of creativity? In science we often hear about novelty and value, originality, significance, innovation, giftedness, talent, genius, art, science, invention, inspiration, improvisation, imagination, divergent thinking, discovery, so on and so forth. What would a focus on language and its processes teach us about creativity? As we will see here, it would bring to the fore new terms such as dialogue, genre, centripetal and centrifugal forces, intertexuality, indexicality, games, and so on. The first vocabulary applies well to the creative person and his or her creative output; the second focuses our attention on process and context, both crucial for understanding and using language. But, before turning to these notions, let us start by unpacking further the bi-directional relation between language and creativity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: chapter)